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Plant Growth Regulators (PGRs) play a vital role in improving crop productivity by regulating plant growth, development, and physiological responses under adverse environmental conditions. Abiotic stresses such as drought, salinity, extreme temperatures, flooding, nutrient deficiencies, and heavy metal toxicity significantly reduce agricultural productivity worldwide by disrupting plant metabolism, photosynthesis, water relations, and nutrient uptake. With increasing climate variability and global warming, the development of effective stress mitigation strategies has become essential for ensuring sustainable agricultural production and food security. Plant Growth Regulators—including auxins, gibberellins, cytokinins, abscisic acid, ethylene, brassinosteroids, jasmonates, salicylic acid, and polyamines—enhance plant tolerance to abiotic stress by regulating hormonal balance, antioxidant defense systems, osmotic adjustment, root development, photosynthesis, and stress-responsive gene expression. These compounds improve plant growth, flowering, fruit development, nutrient utilization, and yield even under unfavorable environmental conditions. This study examines the role of Plant Growth Regulators in improving crop productivity under abiotic stress conditions. It discusses the physiological mechanisms of PGR action, evaluates their effectiveness against major abiotic stresses, explores recent technological advancements supporting PGR-based stress management, and identifies future research directions and policy interventions for sustainable agriculture. The study concludes that Plant Growth Regulators represent an environmentally sustainable and economically viable approach for enhancing crop resilience, improving productivity, and strengthening climate-smart agriculture. Continued research, precision agriculture, biotechnology, and farmer awareness will further enhance the effective utilization of PGRs for sustainable crop production under changing climatic conditions.

The escalating reliance on synthetic chemical pesticides has caused significant environmental degradation, raised human health concerns, and accelerated the development of pesticide resistance. In response to these pressing challenges, botanical pesticides, which utilize natural plant-derived compounds, offer a viable, sustainable, and eco-friendly alternative for crop protection. Derived from sources such as neem, pyrethrum, and various essential oils, these natural secondary metabolites exhibit diverse modes of action against destructive pests, including neurotoxicity, antifeedant effects, and growth inhibition. This review paper comprehensively assesses the application of botanical pesticides, highlighting their numerous ecological benefits such as rapid biodegradability, lower environmental persistence, and minimal toxicity towards non-target organisms like pollinators. Despite these advantages, the widespread commercialization of botanical biopesticides faces several limitations, including variability in active compound concentration, slower knockdown rates compared to synthetics, and regulatory hurdles rooted in frameworks originally designed for conventional chemicals. To overcome these challenges, contemporary advancements in formulation technologies, such as microencapsulation and nanotechnology, are being explored to enhance their stability and field efficacy. Ultimately, the integration of botanical pesticides into modern Integrated Pest Management (IPM) strategies is essential for transitioning towards resilient, productive, and environmentally sustainable agricultural systems globally.

The rapid growth of electronic commerce has transformed global trade by enabling consumers to purchase goods and services through digital platforms with unprecedented convenience, accessibility, and efficiency. Advances in internet connectivity, mobile technologies, digital payment systems, artificial intelligence, and logistics networks have accelerated the expansion of online marketplaces, creating new opportunities for businesses and consumers alike. However, the increasing dependence on e-commerce has also generated significant legal and regulatory challenges concerning consumer rights, product quality, unfair trade practices, misleading advertisements, digital fraud, cybersecurity, privacy protection, cross-border transactions, dispute resolution, and platform accountability. Traditional consumer protection laws are often inadequate for addressing the complexities of digital transactions, requiring governments to modernize legal frameworks that safeguard consumers while encouraging innovation and economic growth. This study examines the emerging legal challenges associated with consumer protection in e-commerce transactions and analyzes the regulatory responses adopted by governments and international organizations to strengthen digital consumer rights. The study explores legal principles relating to transparency, informed consent, data privacy, cybersecurity, online contracts, product liability, electronic payments, digital marketplaces, artificial intelligence, and Online Dispute Resolution (ODR). It further evaluates the effectiveness of contemporary regulatory mechanisms in promoting consumer confidence, ensuring fair competition, preventing cyber fraud, and enhancing accountability among online businesses and digital platforms. The study concludes that comprehensive legislation, international cooperation, technological innovation, effective enforcement, and consumer awareness are essential for building a secure, transparent, and trustworthy digital marketplace capable of supporting sustainable growth in the global e-commerce ecosystem.

The protection of refugees and migrants has become one of the most pressing issues in international human rights law due to increasing armed conflicts, political instability, persecution, climate change, economic inequality, and humanitarian crises. Millions of people are compelled to leave their countries of origin in search of safety, dignity, and better living conditions. While refugees and migrants often face similar vulnerabilities during displacement, international law distinguishes between them based on the reasons for migration and the legal protections available. Refugees are protected under the 1951 Convention Relating to the Status of Refugees and its 1967 Protocol , whereas migrants are protected through broader international human rights instruments that guarantee fundamental rights irrespective of nationality or immigration status. The principle of non-refoulement , prohibition of discrimination, right to life, access to justice, healthcare, education, and protection against exploitation constitute essential components of international refugee and migrant protection. International organizations such as the United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees (UNHCR) , the International Organization for Migration (IOM) , and the United Nations Human Rights Council (UNHRC) play significant roles in humanitarian assistance and policy implementation. Despite considerable legal advancements, refugees and migrants continue to face challenges including forced displacement, statelessness, trafficking, detention, xenophobia, and inadequate access to legal remedies. This study examines the international legal framework governing refugee and migrant protection, analyzes emerging legal challenges, evaluates global and Indian perspectives, and proposes measures for strengthening international cooperation and human rights protection. Effective implementation of international human rights law remains essential for safeguarding the dignity, security, and fundamental freedoms of displaced populations.

Commercial disputes have become increasingly complex in the era of globalization, digital commerce, cross-border investments, and international trade. Traditional litigation, while essential for enforcing legal rights, is often criticized for being time-consuming, expensive, and procedurally rigid. Consequently, Mediation and Alternative Dispute Resolution (ADR) mechanisms have emerged as efficient, flexible, and cost-effective methods for resolving commercial conflicts. ADR encompasses various dispute resolution techniques, including mediation, arbitration, conciliation, negotiation, and expert determination, which enable parties to settle disputes outside conventional court proceedings. Among these methods, mediation has gained particular prominence due to its collaborative, confidential, and non-adversarial nature, preserving business relationships while facilitating mutually beneficial solutions. International legal instruments such as the United Nations Convention on International Settlement Agreements Resulting from Mediation (Singapore Convention on Mediation, 2019) , the UNCITRAL Model Law on International Commercial Mediation , and institutional rules developed by organizations such as the International Chamber of Commerce (ICC) have significantly strengthened the legal recognition and enforceability of mediated settlement agreements. In India, legislative reforms including the Mediation Act, 2023 , the Arbitration and Conciliation Act, 1996 , the Commercial Courts Act, 2015 , and judicial initiatives have accelerated the institutionalization of mediation within the commercial justice system. Emerging developments such as Online Dispute Resolution (ODR), artificial intelligence-assisted mediation, blockchain-enabled dispute management, and digital case administration are further transforming commercial dispute resolution. This study examines the evolving legal framework governing mediation and ADR, analyzes contemporary international and Indian developments, evaluates implementation challenges, and explores future opportunities for strengthening efficient, accessible, and technology-driven commercial justice systems.

Indigenous communities constitute some of the world's oldest and most culturally diverse populations, possessing extensive traditional knowledge relating to biodiversity, medicine, agriculture, environmental conservation, and sustainable resource management. Their knowledge systems have significantly contributed to scientific innovation, ecological sustainability, and cultural preservation. However, globalization, commercialization, climate change, and technological advancement have increasingly exposed indigenous communities to challenges such as cultural erosion, biopiracy, unauthorized exploitation of traditional knowledge, displacement from ancestral lands, and violations of collective human rights. International legal frameworks have progressively evolved to recognize the rights of indigenous peoples through instruments such as the United Nations Declaration on the Rights of Indigenous Peoples (UNDRIP), the International Labour Organization Convention No. 169, the Convention on Biological Diversity, and the Nagoya Protocol. These instruments emphasize self-determination, free, prior and informed consent, equitable benefit-sharing, protection of traditional knowledge, and respect for indigenous cultural heritage. This paper critically examines the international legal framework governing the protection of indigenous communities and traditional knowledge, with particular emphasis on human rights, intellectual property law, biodiversity conservation, and environmental governance. It further analyzes contemporary legal challenges relating to biopiracy, land rights, digital documentation, climate change, and commercialization of indigenous resources. The study concludes by proposing legal reforms aimed at strengthening international cooperation, recognizing indigenous legal systems, promoting equitable benefit-sharing, and ensuring effective protection of indigenous knowledge for sustainable development and intergenerational justice.

International Humanitarian Law (IHL), also known as the law of armed conflict or the law of war, serves as the primary legal framework governing the conduct of parties during armed conflicts. Its fundamental objective is to limit the humanitarian consequences of warfare by protecting civilians, prisoners of war, wounded combatants, medical personnel, and civilian infrastructure while regulating the methods and means of warfare. Contemporary armed conflicts have become increasingly complex due to the rise of non-international armed conflicts, transnational terrorism, cyber warfare, autonomous weapons systems, hybrid warfare, and the involvement of non-state armed groups. These evolving forms of conflict have challenged the effective implementation and enforcement of traditional humanitarian norms established under the Geneva Conventions of 1949 and their Additional Protocols. International institutions, including the United Nations, the International Committee of the Red Cross (ICRC), and the International Criminal Court (ICC), play significant roles in promoting compliance with humanitarian law and ensuring accountability for serious violations constituting war crimes. This paper critically examines the role of International Humanitarian Law in regulating contemporary armed conflicts through an analysis of its legal principles, international treaties, judicial developments, and emerging challenges. It further evaluates the effectiveness of existing enforcement mechanisms in addressing modern warfare and proposes legal reforms aimed at strengthening civilian protection, improving accountability, and adapting humanitarian law to evolving military technologies and transnational security threats while preserving the core principles of humanity, necessity, distinction, and proportionality.

The present study titled “Influence of Media Exposure on Political Awareness, Civic Participation, and Democratic Values among Young Voters” examines how different forms of media shape the political understanding, public engagement, and democratic attitudes of young voters. Media exposure includes newspapers, television, radio, digital news portals, social media platforms, podcasts, online videos, and political discussions circulated through digital networks. In the present democratic environment, young voters receive political information not only from traditional media but also from social media and online platforms. Recent youth research also shows that social media has become a major source of political information for young people, though concerns regarding misinformation and low trust remain important.

The present study examines the level of knowledge, attitude, and practices of internet users regarding safe, ethical, and responsible use of digital technologies. Cybersecurity awareness refers to understanding online threats such as hacking, phishing, identity theft, malware, cyber fraud, password misuse, data leakage, and privacy violation. Digital citizenship refers to the responsible participation of individuals in the digital world through ethical communication, respect for others, protection of personal information, and lawful use of online platforms.

The present study examines the importance of local wisdom, indigenous practices, and community-based knowledge in achieving sustainable development and protecting cultural identity. Traditional knowledge systems include the accumulated knowledge, skills, beliefs, customs, ecological understanding, medicinal practices, agricultural methods, craft traditions, oral histories, rituals, and resource-management techniques developed by communities over generations.

Parenting styles play a significant role in shaping the emotional, behavioural, and academic development of children and adolescents, particularly in the rapidly changing social and technological environment of the modern era. The family serves as the primary context in which children develop emotional security, social values, behavioural patterns, and learning habits. Parenting approaches such as authoritative, authoritarian, permissive, and uninvolved parenting influence children's self-esteem, emotional regulation, interpersonal relationships, decision-making abilities, and educational outcomes. With increasing exposure to digital media, academic competition, changing family structures, and societal expectations, understanding the impact of parenting styles has become increasingly important for promoting healthy child development. This study examines the influence of different parenting styles on emotional development, behavioural adjustment, and academic achievement among children and adolescents. It highlights how supportive and responsive parenting fosters emotional resilience, self-confidence, positive behaviour, and improved academic performance, whereas harsh, inconsistent, or neglectful parenting may contribute to emotional distress, behavioural problems, and poor educational outcomes. The study also explores the role of communication, parental involvement, discipline, emotional support, and home environment in influencing children's overall well-being. Furthermore, it discusses the challenges faced by modern families, including work-life imbalance, excessive screen time, peer pressure, and changing parenting practices, which affect children's development. The paper concludes that balanced, nurturing, and responsive parenting, combined with effective communication and active parental engagement, creates a supportive environment that promotes healthy emotional growth, positive behavioural adjustment, and academic success. Strengthening parenting education and family support programmes can therefore contribute significantly to the holistic development of children and adolescents in contemporary society.